Inequality Assessments: Construction and Validity Evidence of the Economic Inequality Representations Scale

Adler, Nancy E.; Epel, Elissa S.; Castellazzo, Grace, & Ickovics, Jeannette R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586

Asparouhov, Tihomir, & Muthen, Bengt. (2010). Simple second order chi-square correction [Computer software]. https://www.statmodel.com/download/WLSMV_new_chi21.pdf

Bai, Jie; Xu, Bu-Xiao; Yang, Shen-Long, & Guo, Young-Yu. (2023). Why are higher-class individuals less supportive of redistribution? The mediating role of attributions for rich-poor gap. Current Psychology, 42(20), 16883–16893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02836-2

Bavetta, Sebastiano; Li Donni, Paolo, & Marino, Maria. (2017). An empirical analysis of the determinants of perceived inequality. Review of Income and Wealth, 65(2), 264–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12351

Becker, Julia C.; Kraus, Michael W., & Rheinschmidt-Same, Michelle. (2017). Cultural expressions of social class and their implications for group-related beliefs and behaviors. Journal of Social Issues, 73(1), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12209

Bernaards, Coen A.; Gilbert, Paul, & Jennrich, Robert I. (2023). GPArotation: Gradient projection factor rotation (2023.11-1) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/GPArotation/index.html

Blondé, Jérôme; Easterbrook, Matthew J.; Kulich, Clara; Chipeaux, Marion, & Lorenzi-Cioldi, Fábio. (2022). Social disparities in health behaviours: The role of class-related behavioural norms and social class identification. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 32(2), 302–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2574

Brown, Timothy A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed). The Guilford Press.

Brown-Iannuzzi, Jazmin L.; Lundberg, Kristjen B., & McKee, Stephanie. E. (2021). Economic inequality and socioeconomic ranking inform attitudes toward redistribution. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 96, 104180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104180

Bussolo, Maurizio; Ferrer-i-Carbonell, Ada; Giolbas, Anna, & Torre, Iván. (2021). I perceive therefore I demand: The formation of inequality perceptions and demand for redistribution. Review of Income and Wealth, 67(4), 835–871. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12497

Carlston, Don. (2010). Models of implicit and explicit mental representations. In Bertram Gawronski, & Brian K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 38–61). The Guilford Press.

Couto, Cleno, & Pilati, Ronaldo. (2023). Adaptation of the learned helplessness scale in Brazil. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 39, e39513. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102.3772e39513.en

Daganzo, Mary A., & Bernardo, Allan B. I. (2018). Socioeconomic status and problem attributions: The mediating role of sense of control. Cogent Psychology, 5(1), 1525149. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2018.1525149

Davidai, Shai. (2022). How do people make sense of wealth and poverty? Personal and societal influences on attributions of economic outcomes. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.010

Dietze, Pia. (2019). A sociocultural model of social class: How resource ecologies shape social cognition. (Order No 13809057) [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. https://www.proquest.com/openview/3d92893f11ce34a3712b8314e686e85f/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Du, Hongfei; Chen, Anli; Li, Yingling; Ma, Lijun; Xing, Qiang, & Nie, Yangang. (2022). Perceived income inequality increases status seeking among low social class individuals. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12455

Du, Hongfei, & King, Ronnel B. (2022). What predicts perceived economic inequality? The roles of actual inequality, system justification, and fairness considerations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 61, 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12468

Duman, Anil. (2019). Subjective social class and individual preferences for redistribution: Cross-country empirical analysis. International Journal of Social Economics, 47(2), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-06-2019-0377

Faul, Franz; Erdfelder, Edgar; Buchner, Axel, & Lang, Albert-Georg. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149

Fendinger, Nicholas J.; Dietze, Pia, & Knowles, Eric. D. (2023). Beyond cognitive deficits: How social class shapes social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 27(6), 528–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.03.004

Field, Andy. (2017). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Fischer, Ronald, & Karl, Johannes A. (2019). A primer to (cross-cultural) multi-group invariance testing possibilities in R. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01507

Fiske, Susan T., & Taylor, Shelley E. (2017). Social cognition: From brains to culture. (3rd ed.). Sage.

Fleiss, Joseph L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. John Wiley and Sons.

García-Castro, Juan D.; García-Sánchez, Efraín; Willis, Guillermo B.; Castillo, Juan C., & Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa. (2022). Perceived economic inequality measures and their association with objective inequality and redistributive preferences. Social Psychology, 53(5), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000498

García-Castro, Juan D.; Willis, Guillermo B., & Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa. (2019). I know people who can and who cannot: A measure of the perception of economic inequality in everyday life. The Social Science Journal, 56(4), 599–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.09.008

García-Sánchez, Efraín; Correia, Isabel; Pereira, Cícero R.; Willis, Guillermo B.; Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa, & Vala, Jorge. (2022). How fair is economic inequality? Belief in a just world and the legitimation of economic disparities in 27 European countries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(3), 382–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211002366

García-Sánchez, Efraín; Osborne, Danny; Willis, Guillermo B., & Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa. (2019). Attitudes towards redistribution and the interplay between perceptions and beliefs about inequality. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(1), 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12326

García-Sánchez, Efraín; Willis, Guillermo B.; Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa; García-Castro, Juan D.; Palacio-Sañudo, Jorge; Polo, Jean D., & Rentería-Pérez, Erico. (2018). Perceptions of economic inequality in Colombian daily life: More than unequal distribution of economic resources. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1660. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01660

Goudarzi, Shahrzad; Pliskin, Ruthie; Jost, John T., & Knowles, Eric. D. (2020). Economic system justification predicts muted emotional responses to inequality. Nature Communications, 11(1), 383. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-14193-z

Haddon, Edward, & Wu, Cary. (2022). How does actual inequality shape people’s perceptions of inequality? A class perspective. Sociological Perspectives, 65(5), 825–847. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211062106

Harnish, Richard J.; Bridges, K. Robert, & Gump, Joshua. T. (2018). Predicting economic, social, and foreign policy conservatism: The role of right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, moral foundations orientation, and religious fundamentalism. Current Psychology, 37(3), 668–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9552-x

Hebart, Martin N.; Zheng, Charles Y.; Pereira, Francisco, & Baker, Chris. I. (2020). Revealing the multidimensional mental representations of natural objects underlying human similarity judgements. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(11), 1173–1185. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00951-3

Heiserman, Nicholas, & Simpson, Brent. (2021). Measuring perceptions of economic inequality and justice: An empirical assessment. Social Justice Research, 34(2), 119–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-021-00368-x

Hernández-Nieto, Rafael A. (2002). Contributions to statistical analysis: The coefficients of proportional variance, content validity and kappa. Universidad de Los Andes.

Im, Hohjin, & Shane, Jacob. (2022). Causal beliefs for socioeconomic status attainment scale: Development and validation. The Journal of Social Psychology, 162(6), 670–690. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.1948811

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica. (2019). Pesquisa de orçamentos familiares 2017-2018: Primeiros resultados. https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/index.php/biblioteca-catalogo?view=detalhes&id=2101670

Jost, John T., & Thompson, Erik. P. (2000). Group-based dominance and opposition to equality as independent predictors of self-esteem, ethnocentrism, and social policy attitudes among African Americans and European Americans. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36(3), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1403

Kiliç, Abdullah F., & Doğan, Nuri. (2021). Comparison of confirmatory factor analysis estimation methods on mixed-format data. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 8(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.782351

Koo, Hyunjin J.; Piff, Paul. K., & Shariff, Azim. F. (2023). If I could do it, so can they: Among the rich, those with humbler origins are less sensitive to the difficulties of the poor. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 14(3), 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221098921

Kraus, Michael W., & Park, Jun. W. (2017). The structural dynamics of social class. Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.029

Kraus, Michael W.; Piff, Paul K.; Mendoza-Denton, Rodolfo; Rheinschmidt, Michelle L., & Keltner, Dacher. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychological Review, 119(3), 546–572. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028756

Kraus, Michael W.; Torrez, Brittany; Park, Jun. W., & Ghayebi, Fariba. (2019). Evidence for the reproduction of social class in brief speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(46), 22998–23003. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900500116

Laros, Jacob A. (2012). O uso da análise fatorial: Algumas diretrizes para pesquisadores. In Luiz Pasquali (Ed.), Análise fatorial para pesquisadores (pp. 141–160). LabPAM Saber e Tecnologia.

Lima, Thiago J. S. de. (2016). O papel de representações sobre raça e classe social no preconceito e discriminação [Tese de doutorado, Universidade Federal da Paraíba]. Repositório Institucional UFPB. https://repositorio.ufpb.br/jspui/handle/tede/8543

Lima-Nunes, Aline. (2021). Preocupações com a economia: Desigualdade de renda e satisfação com a vida. Revista de Psicologia, 30(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-0581.2021.54329

Linhares, Layanne V. (2017). Crença no mundo justo e ditados populares [Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade Federal da Paraíba]. Repositório Institucional UFPB. https://repositorio.ufpb.br/jspui/handle/123456789/12169

Lorenzo-Seva, Urbano, & Ferrando, Pere J. (2019). Robust promin: A method for diagonally weighted factor rotation. Liberabit. Revista Peruana de Psicología, 25(1), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.24265/liberabit.2019.v25n1.08

Lorenzo-Seva, Urbano; Timmerman, Marieke E., & Kiers, Henk. A. L. (2011). The hull method for selecting the number of common factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46(2), 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2011.564527

Manstead, Antony S. R. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12251

Melita, Davide; Willis, Guillermo B., & Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa. (2021). Economic inequality increases status anxiety through perceived contextual competitiveness. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 63736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637365

Méndez, Yasmín S., & Waltenberg, Fábio D. (2016). Aversão à desigualdade e preferências por redistribuição: A percepção de mobilidade econômica as afeta no Brasil? Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo), 46, 91–125. https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-416146193ymf

Mendonça Neto, Cleno C. (2022). Revoltados e apáticos: Efeitos da justificação do sistema e do desamparo aprendido em protestos políticos [Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de Brasília]. Repositório Institucional UnB. http://www.rlbea.unb.br/jspui/bitstream/10482/44761/1/2022_ClenoCoutodeMendonçaNeto.pdf

Miatto, Bruna. (2024, April 19). Desigualdade no Brasil: Rendimento mensal do 1% mais rico é 40 vezes maior que dos 40% mais pobres. G1 Economia. https://g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2024/04/19/desigualdade-no-brasil-rendimento-mensal-do-1percent-mais-rico-e-40-vezes-maior-que-dos-40percent-mais-pobres.ghtml

Pasquali, Luiz. (2010). Instrumentação psicológica: Fundamentos e práticas. Artmed.

Passos, Maria F. D., & Laros, Jacob A. (2015). Construção de uma escala reduzida de cinco grandes fatores de personalidade. Avaliação Psicológica, 14(1), 115–123. http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1677-04712015000100014&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=pt

Peters, Kim, & Jetten, Jolanda. (2023). How living in economically unequal societies shapes our minds and our social lives. British Journal of Psychology, 114(2), 515–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12632

Peters, Kim; Jetten, Jolanda; Tanjitpiyanond, Porntida; Wang, Zhechen; Mols, Frank, & Verkuyten, Maykel. (2022). The language of inequality: Evidence economic inequality increases wealth category salience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(8), 1204–1219. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211036627

Phillips, L. Taylor; Tepper, Stephanie J.; Goya-Tocchetto, Daniela; Davidai, Shai; Ordabayeva, Nailya; Mirza, M. Usman; Szaszi, Barnabas; Day, Martin V.; Hauser, Oliver P., & Jachimowicz, John. M. (2023). Inequality in people’s minds. Journal of Economic Surveys, 37(5), 1534–1561. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/vawh9

Piff, Paul K.; Kraus, Michael W., & Keltner, Dacher. (2017). Unpacking the inequality paradox: The psychological roots of inequality and social class. In James M. Olson (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 53–124). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.10.002

Pratto, Felicia; Sidanius, Jim; Stallworth, Lisa M., & Malle, Bertram. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741

Quinless, Frances W., & McDermott Nelson, Mary. A. (1988). Development of a measure of learned helplessness. Nursing Research, 37(1), 11–15. https://journals.lww.com/nursingresearchonline/abstract/1988/01000/development_of_a_measure_of_learned_helplessness.3.aspx

Revelle, William. (2024). Psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research (2.4.1) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/psych/index.html

Rosseel, Yves; Jorgensen, Terrence D.; Rockwood, Nicholas; Oberski, Daniel; Byrnes, Jarrett; Vanbrabant, Leonard; Savalei, Victoria; Merkle, Ed.; Hallquist, Michael; Rhemtulla, Mijke; Katsikatsou, Myrsini; Barendse, Mariska; Scharf, Florian, & Du, Han. (2023). lavaan: Latent variable analysis (0.6-16) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/lavaan/index.html

Schmalor, Anita, & Heine, Steven J. (2022). The construct of subjective economic inequality. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550621996867

Schnotz, Wolfgang; Hauck, Georg, & Schwartz, Neil. H. (2022). Multiple mental representations in picture processing. Psychological Research, 86(3), 903–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01541-2

Silva, Washington A. D. (2021). Do Brazilians see the way things are as they should be? A new system justification scale [Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade Federal da Paraíba]. Repositório Institucional UFPB. https://repositorio.ufpb.br/jspui/bitstream/123456789/21215/1/WashingtonAllyssonDantasSilva_Dissert.pdf

Smith, Elliot R., & Queller, Sarah. (2001). Mental representations. In Abraham Tesser, & Norbert Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intraindividual processes (pp. 111–133). Blackwell Publishers Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998519.ch6

Tan, Jacinth J. X.; Kraus, Michael W.; Carpenter, Nichelle C., & Adler, Nancy E. (2020). The association between objective and subjective socioeconomic status and subjective well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(11), 970–1020. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000258

Timmerman, Marieke E., & Lorenzo-Seva, Urbano. (2011). Dimensionality assessment of ordered polytomous items with parallel analysis. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023353

Tomé, Natalia L. (2024). Desigualdade económica: Construção e validação de medida para avaliação da representação da desigualdade (ERDE) [Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de Brasília]. Repositório Institucional UnB. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/51256

Ugur, Zeynep B. (2021). How does inequality hamper subjective well-being? The role of fairness. Social Indicators Research, 158(2), 377–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02711-w

Valtorta, Rosa R.; Vezzoli, Michela; Mari, Silvia; Durante, Federica, & Volpato, Chiara. (2024). Measuring subjective inequality: Development and validation of the Perceived Economic Inequality Scale (PEIS). The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 27, e2. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2024.4

Velasquez, Anthony G.; Yankulova, Jessica K.; White, Nathan A.; Gazzaley, Adam, & Morsella, Ezequiel. (2023). Involuntary refreshing of mental representations. Acta Psychologica, 232, 103819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103819

Vilanova, Felipe; Almeida-Segundo, Damião S.; Duarte, Michael de Q., & Costa, Ângelo. B. (2022). Evidências de validade da escala de orientação à dominância social no Brasil. Psico-USF, 27, 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712024270303

Waldfogel, Hannah B.; Sheehy-Skeffington, Jennifer; Hauser, Oliver P.; Ho, Arnold K., & Kteily, Nour. S. (2021). Ideology selectively shapes attention to inequality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(14), e2023985118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023985118

Wienk, Margaux N. A.; Buttrick, Nicholas R., & Oishi, Shigehiro. (2021). The social psychology of economic inequality, redistribution, and subjective well-being. European Review of Social Psychology, 33(1), 45–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1955458

Wiwad, Dylan; Mercier, Brett; Maraun, Michael D.; Robinson, Angela R.; Piff, Paul K.; Aknin, Lara. B., & Shariff, Azim. F. (2019). The support for economic inequality scale: Development and adjudication. PLOS ONE, 14(6), e0218685. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218685

Wiwad, Dylan; Mercier, Brett; Piff, Paul K.; Shariff, Azim, & Aknin, Lara. B. (2021). Recognizing the impact of COVID-19 on the poor alters attitudes towards poverty and inequality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 93, 104083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104083

Wyer, Robert S. Jr. (2007). Principles of mental representation. In Ariel W. Kruglanski, & E. Tory Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 285–307). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1901.02915

Zheng, Charles Y.; Pereira, Francisco; Baker, Chris. I., & Hebart, Martin. N. (2019). Revealing interpretable object representations from human behavior (arXiv:1901.02915). arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1901.02915