In general, we can recognise more than 7 million colours. Generic colours can include red, yellow, and blue, as they form the basis for all other shades, and at the same time, they cannot be created by combining other colours. Mixing two primary colours produces secondary colours, which include purple (red and blue), orange (red and yellow), and green (yellow and blue) (Marks & Sutton, 2009).

Colours can be divided from the point of view of the contrasting characteristics of the shade, namely into warm, cold, and neutral. Warm colours are perceived as high-energy colours. These colours are used in creative professions where dynamism and energy need to be highlighted (Sendra & Carbonell-Barrachina, 2017). This group of colours attracts consumers regardless of their colour preferences, helping to attract customers, encourage them to make impulse purchases, and make quick purchase decisions. On the contrary, in situations where there is a need to think more deeply about the purchase, they lead to premature termination of the shopping trip. Therefore, they are a suitable choice in the exhibition area of trade (Di Folco & Proust, 2014).

Cool colours are considered muted colours. They are preferred in sectors such as advocacy, conservative banking sectors and the like (Sendra & Carbonell-Barrachina, 2017). These colours help in purchases, where a deeper consideration is needed when deciding (Di Folco & Proust, 2014). In addition to warm and cool colours, neutral colours can also be identified, which include white, black, and grey. Few authors have investigated the connections between colours and emotions. In scientific practice, however, there is still a great untapped potential for colour research (De Cock et al., 2020). Perception and emotion (and their eventual nexus) to colours have not been sufficiently explored. Colours have a certain symbolic meaning for people, which is influenced by many determinants. As a determinant, we can determine empiricism, culture, demography, and personal association; in other words, different people can perceive the same colour differently (Chen et al., 2020). At the same time, the perception of colours and their emotional associations changes over time (Dannhoferová, 2012; Gasparyan & Asatryan, 2016), which indicates the need for constant research and, at the same time, the importance of age segmentation. In general, younger children are attracted to strong, warm, and intense colours (Gasparyan & Asatryan, 2016), suggesting the importance of age segmentation in colour exploration. Another determinant can be saturation, whereby high colour saturation is often associated with positive emotions and colours with low saturation, on the contrary, with soft or negative emotions (Ginting-Szczesny, 2022). Domicele Jonauskaite et al. (2019) report that light colours are associated with pleasant emotions, while dark colours are associated with negative emotions. In the context of colour perception, there are differences in terms of demographic factors; specifically, differences in colour perception based on age and gender factors have been proven (César Machado et al., 2021; Maule et al., 2023). Differences in colour perception from the point of view of age are caused by ageing and the wear of receptors. According to anthropologists, gender differences are caused by evolutionary predispositions. Women as fruit pickers needed to distinguish a wider palette of colours for the purpose of recognising ripe fruits from unripe ones. Differences can also be found in colour blindness. Men are colorblind more often than women. Colour blindness affects approximately 8% of men but only 0.5% of women. It can also be considered interesting that around 12% of women have four types of rods in their eyes (instead of three), which gives them the opportunity to distinguish up to a hundred times wider range of colours (Halička, 2019). Similarly, the symbolism of colours can cause certain emotional associations. For example, black and grey create negative emotions as they are associated (in terms of our culture) with death and darkness (Adams & Helfand, 2017). The symbolism of colours is dealt with by a number of scientists (e.g., Elliot, 2015; Gruber et al., 2024; Hultén et al., 2009; Jonauskaite & Mohr, 2025 and others), whose work we will build on. Colour and its symbolism are used in psychology and sociology, but also in marketing, for example in the creation of company logos, store design, marketing communications, company products, and product packaging. Colour perception can be based on cultural predispositions (Kawai et al., 2023), and culture can be a significant factor in behaviour (Kita et al., 2023), thus bringing personality values not only in the field of psychology, but also in the context of marketing and business (Krowicki & Maciejewski, 2023).

The aim of the article is (1) to investigate the popularity of the colours of generation Z in Slovakia; (2) to investigate the direction (positivity or negativity) of emotions that are associated with colours; and (3) to verify possible connections between the degree of popularity and the direction of emotions of colours in the studied cohort.

Based on the presented overview of scientific and professional literature, as well as on the formulated goal, we created the following research questions (RQ) and hypothesis (H) for the comprehensive fulfilment of the aim:

The base consisted of 179 respondents from Generation Z. We only work with a part of Generation Z, namely the population aged 15 to 29 years (Benítez-Márquez et al., 2022; Naďová Krošláková et al., 2024), however, we work with the 18 to 29-year-old population, which is part of Generation Z referred to as young adults (Coulaud et al., 2023; Lindsay et al., 2023). The reason for adjusting the lower interval is, on the one hand, the ethics of the research, and at the same time, it concerns adult respondents who have formed their opinions as well as a comprehensive view of the world. In the paper, weight conversion for gender is used to achieve representativeness in this factor. In the population, the gender distribution can be identified at roughly the level of 51% men and 49% women (Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic, 2023). In weight calculations, it is recommended by default to “never to weight a respondent less than 0.5 nor more than 2” (Elliott, 2020, p. 1). This general rule was observed in our case. Weights themselves do not affect all statistical procedures, but to clarify the methodology, it is appropriate to state that weights were used in all analyses performed.

The article is supported by the results of the primary survey, which consisted of three parts. The first part focuses on the popularity of colours on a five-point scale. The second part focuses on the investigation of the perception of emotions resulting from the eleven colours investigated. Based on scientific recommendations (e.g., Jonauskaite et al., 2019), we examine emotions as positive and negative, while the degree of perception is categorised into five scale levels, namely: very negative, negative, neutral, positive, and very positive. The third part focuses on the respondents’ characteristics, such as age and gender. It should be noted that for this type of paper, it is not appropriate to use the word “red”, as the respondent can imagine a different shade of colour under this term. Therefore, the respondents were provided with a sample of the colours on which they commented. Colours were defined with the help of RGB codes, which were subsequently transformed into HEX codes, as they were used both in print and online form. We specified the definition of colours in Table 1.

On the basis of Table 1, the used colour can be clearly defined. It should be noted that in the work we use self-reports, which represent certain limits (Dasborough et al., 2008), when only verbal stimuli could distort the results. Direct visual interaction is thus a suitable means to mitigate the limits of self-reports (Müller & Kappas, 2010; Höllerer et al., 2019).

For the needs of information processing, we use general scientific-philosophical methods, which include analysis, synthesis, deduction, and scientific abstraction. As part of the results of the work, we use mathematical and statistical methods. We make extensive use of descriptive statistics (Čvirik & Ölveczká, 2022). We use the correlation coefficient (Spearman’s Rho) to investigate connections, while we verify this coefficient for the need to generalise to the entire population with the help of inferential statistics. For grouping, we use cluster analysis (Čvirik & Ölveczká, 2023). The Wards method was chosen as the cluster analysis method, as its algorithm is complex and suitable for this type of task. Due to the nature of the data (ordinal data), we used the Chi squared measure. Since it is a hierarchical method, the output of which can be graphically visualised with the help of a dendrogram (Čvirik & Ölveczká, 2023), we use this visualisation for a simpler and clearer clarification of the results. For the overall display of colour preferences and emotional perception of colours, we used correspondence analysis (CA), the significant advantage of which is a clear output in the form of a factor map (Greenacre, 2010), which, in our understanding, represents the colour perception map of the studied cohort.

The paper can be divided into three parts according to the formulated goal, while the first part focuses on the popularity of the colour, the second part focuses on emotions, and the third part examines the possible connections between popularity and emotions. In the next part of the paper, we will proceed logically in terms of the set research questions and hypotheses that will help us in the comprehensive fulfilment of the aim.

The aim of the article was (1) to investigate the popularity of the colours of generation Z in Slovakia; (2) to investigate the direction of (positive and negative) emotions associated with colours; and (3) to verify possible connections between the degree of popularity and the direction of emotions associated with colours in the studied cohort.

The article is supported by a primary survey of 179 respondents from generation Z in Slovakia. As the sample does not reflect the parameters of the population, we used weight conversions to obtain representativeness with regard to gender, which is an important factor in colour perception (Jacobs et al., 1991). As part of the first part of the goal, we identified colour popularity measures. The results indicate that black is currently one of the most popular colours, followed by white and blue, in the studied cohort. We also identified four groups of colours based on the similarity of their perceived popularity. We also investigated the emotional perception of colours, which indicates negative emotional associations with black and grey and, conversely, a high degree of positive association with yellow and green. Within the emotion-based colour grouping, we identified three clusters. In general, it can be assumed that the current fashion trend (Di Folco & Proust, 2014), as well as the symbolism of colours (Ardila-Leal et al., 2021; Mackenzie, 1922), have a significant effect on both the popularity of colours and emotional perception. As part of the results, we also offer a clear map of the perception of preferences and emotional indications of the studied cohort.

The results of the article can be applied in several areas. In psychology, the results can be used to improve the emotional state of the young generation, which is marked by psychological problems (Achterbergh et al., 2020; Garrido et al., 2019). The results can also help in marketing communication using elements of sensory marketing, which include colour (Lim et al., 2020; Rathee & Rajain, 2019). In this context, we can talk about the connection between sensory and emotional marketing. In the same way, grouping of colours can help with colour combinations, for example, in the creation of product design as well as in marketing communication policy.

This paper also contains certain limitations. The paper focuses on the general perception of basic colours. In the future, it would be appropriate to investigate other colour shades as well as specify lightness and colour tones. In the future, it would be appropriate to investigate not only the influence of demographic factors but also the current emotional state of the respondents, for example, with the help of Beck’s anxiety inventory. Due to the clear definition of colours, research in other countries and subsequent comparisons are also possible. In general, emotional aspects are significantly connected to sensory perceptions, but they are still insufficiently researched (Čvirik, 2024), and the article contributes to this knowledge base and thus creates topics for further research.